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<title>Class-based programming</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Class-based programming</span></span>

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<p><b>Class-based programming</b>, or more commonly <b>class-orientation</b>, is a style of <a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented programming</a> (OOP) in which <a href="Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">inheritance</a> occurs via defining <i><a href="Class_(computer_programming)" title="Class (computer programming)">classes</a></i> of <a href="Object_(computer_science)" title="Object (computer science)">objects</a>, instead of inheritance occurring via the objects alone (compare <a href="Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based programming">prototype-based programming</a>).

</p><p>The most popular and developed model of OOP is a class-based model, instead of an object-based model. In this model, objects are entities that combine <i><a href="State_(computer_science)" title="State (computer science)">state</a></i> (i.e., data), <i><a href="Behavior" title="Behavior">behavior</a></i> (i.e., procedures, or <i><a href="Method_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Method (computer science)">methods</a></i>) and <i><a href="Identity_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Identity (object-oriented programming)">identity</a></i> (unique existence among all other objects). The structure and behavior of an object are defined by a <a href="Class_(object-oriented_programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Class (object-oriented programming)">class</a>, which is a <a href="Definition" title="Definition">definition</a>, or <a href="Blueprint" title="Blueprint">blueprint</a>, of all objects of a specific type. An object must be explicitly created based on a class and an object thus created is considered to be an <a href="Instantiation_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Instantiation (computer science)">instance</a> of that class. An object is similar to a <a href="Data_structure" title="Data structure">structure</a>, with the addition of method pointers, member access control, and an implicit data member which locates instances of the class (i.e., objects of the class) in the class hierarchy (essential for runtime inheritance features).

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Encapsulation">Encapsulation</h2></div>

<p><a href="Information_hiding" title="Information hiding">Encapsulation</a> prevents users from breaking the <a href="Invariant_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Invariant (computer science)">invariants</a> of the class, which is useful because it allows the implementation of a class of objects to be changed for aspects not exposed in the interface without impact to user code. The definitions of encapsulation focus on the grouping and packaging of related information (<a href="Cohesion_(computer_science)" title="Cohesion (computer science)">cohesion</a>) rather than security issues.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Inheritance">Inheritance</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">Inheritance</a></div>

<p>In class-based programming, <a href="Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">inheritance</a> is done by defining new classes as <a href="Extension_(semantics)" title="Extension (semantics)">extensions</a> of existing classes: the existing class is the <a href="Parent_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Parent class">parent class</a> and the new class is the <a href="Subclass_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subclass (computer science)">child class</a>. If a child class has only one parent class, this is known as <i><a href="Single_inheritance" class="mw-redirect" title="Single inheritance">single inheritance</a>,</i> while if a child class can have more than one parent class, this is known as <i><a href="Multiple_inheritance" title="Multiple inheritance">multiple inheritance</a>.</i> This organizes classes into a <a href="Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">hierarchy</a>, either a <i><a href="Tree_(set_theory)" title="Tree (set theory)">tree</a></i> (if single inheritance) or <i><a href="Lattice_(order)" title="Lattice (order)">lattice</a></i> (if multiple inheritance).

</p><p>The defining feature of inheritance is that both interface and implementation are inherited; if only interface is inherited, this is known as <a href="Interface_inheritance" class="mw-redirect" title="Interface inheritance">interface inheritance</a> or <i>subtyping.</i> Inheritance can also be done without classes, as in <a href="Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based programming">prototype-based programming</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Critique">Critique</h2></div>

<p>Class-based languages, or, to be more precise, <a href="Typed_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Typed language">typed languages</a>, where <a href="Subclass_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subclass (computer science)">subclassing</a> is the only way of <a href="Subtyping" title="Subtyping">subtyping</a>, have been criticized for mixing up implementations and interfaces—the essential principle in object-oriented programming. The critics say one might create a bag class that stores a <a href="Collection_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Collection class">collection</a> of objects, then extend it to make a new class called a set class where the duplication of objects is eliminated.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Now, a function that takes an object of the bag class may expect that adding two objects increases the size of a bag by two, yet if one passes an object of a set class, then adding two objects may or may not increase the size of a bag by two. The problem arises precisely because subclassing implies subtyping even in the instances where the principle of subtyping, known as the <a href="Liskov_substitution_principle" title="Liskov substitution principle">Liskov substitution principle</a>, does not hold. <a href="Barbara_Liskov" title="Barbara Liskov">Barbara Liskov</a> and <a href="Jeannette_Wing" title="Jeannette Wing">Jeannette Wing</a> formulated the principle succinctly in a 1994 paper as follows:

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<blockquote><p><i>Subtype Requirement</i>: Let <span class="nowrap">⁠<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi (x)}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi (x)}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math></span><img src="./546b660b2f3cfb5f34be7b3ed8371d54f5c74227.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.524ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi (x)}" loading="lazy"></span>⁠</span> be a property provable about objects <span class="nowrap">⁠<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math></span><img src="./87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span>⁠</span> of type <span class="nowrap">⁠<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}">

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math></span><img src="./ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T}" loading="lazy"></span>⁠</span>. Then <span class="nowrap">⁠<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi (y)}">

</mstyle>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi (y)}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math></span><img src="./db7ffe2f7daf9bae8d3f2711b2fd67348aceb3dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.35ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi (y)}" loading="lazy"></span>⁠</span> should be true for objects <span class="nowrap">⁠<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation>

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</math></span><img src="./b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}" loading="lazy"></span>⁠</span> of type <span class="nowrap">⁠<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}">

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math></span><img src="./4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}" loading="lazy"></span>⁠</span> where <span class="nowrap">⁠<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}">

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math></span><img src="./4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}" loading="lazy"></span>⁠</span> is a subtype of <span class="nowrap">⁠<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}">

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</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation>

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<p>Thus, normally one must distinguish subtyping and subclassing. Most current object-oriented languages distinguish subtyping and subclassing, however some approaches to design do not.

</p><p>Also, another common example is that a person object created from a <a href="Subclass_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subclass (computer science)">child class</a> cannot become an object of <a href="Parent_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Parent class">parent class</a> because a child class and a parent class inherit a person class but class-based languages mostly do not allow to change the kind of class of the object at runtime. For class-based languages, this restriction is essential in order to preserve unified view of the class to its users. The users should not need to care whether one of the implementations of a method happens to cause changes that break the <a href="Invariant_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Invariant (computer science)">invariants</a> of the class. Such changes can be made by destroying the object and constructing another in its place. Polymorphism can be used to preserve the relevant interfaces even when such changes are done, because the objects are viewed as black box abstractions and accessed via object <a href="Identity_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Identity (object-oriented programming)">identity</a>. However, usually the value of object references referring to the object is changed, which causes effects to client code.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Example_languages">Example languages</h2></div>

<p>Although <a href="Simula" title="Simula">Simula</a> introduced the class abstraction, the canonical example of a class-based language is <a href="Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a>. Others include <a href="PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a>, <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, <a href="C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a>, and <a href="Objective-C" title="Objective-C">Objective-C</a>.

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<ul><li><a href="Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based programming">Prototype-based programming</a> (contrast)</li>

<li><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigms</a></li>

<li><a href="Class_(computer_programming)" title="Class (computer programming)">Class (computer programming)</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFKiselyov" class="citation web cs1">Kiselyov, Oleg. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://okmij.org/ftp/Computation/Subtyping/">"Subtyping, Subclassing, and Trouble with OOP"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDucasse" class="citation web cs1">Ducasse, Stéphane. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stephane.ducasse.free.fr/Resources/LecturesInPowerpoint/STOOP-416-LSP.ppt">"A set cannot be a subtype of a bag"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite></span>

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</style><div id="Programming_paradigms_(Comparison_by_language)368" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigms</a> (<a href="Comparison_of_multi-paradigm_programming_languages" title="Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages">Comparison by language</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">Imperative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">Structured</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jackson_structured_programming" title="Jackson structured programming">Jackson structures</a></li>

<li><a href="Block_(programming)" title="Block (programming)">Block-structured</a></li>

<li><a href="Modular_programming" title="Modular programming">Modular</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-structured_programming" title="Non-structured programming">Non-structured</a></li>

<li><a href="Procedural_programming" title="Procedural programming">Procedural</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_in_the_large_and_programming_in_the_small" title="Programming in the large and programming in the small">Programming in the large and in the small</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_by_contract" title="Design by contract">Design by contract</a></li>

<li><a href="Invariant-based_programming" title="Invariant-based programming">Invariant-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Nested_function" title="Nested function">Nested function</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object-oriented</a><br>(<a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Comparison of programming languages (object-oriented programming)">comparison</a>, <a href="List_of_object-oriented_programming_languages" title="List of object-oriented programming languages">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>, <a href="Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based programming">Prototype-based</a>, <a href="Object-based_language" title="Object-based language">Object-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Agent-oriented_programming" title="Agent-oriented programming">Agent</a></li>

<li><a href="Immutable_object" title="Immutable object">Immutable object</a></li>

<li><a href="Persistent_programming_language" title="Persistent programming language">Persistent</a></li>

<li><a href="Uniform_function_call_syntax" title="Uniform function call syntax">Uniform function call syntax</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Declarative_programming" title="Declarative programming">Declarative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">Functional</a><br>(<a href="Comparison_of_functional_programming_languages" title="Comparison of functional programming languages">comparison</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Recursion_(computer_science)" title="Recursion (computer science)">Recursive</a></li>

<li><a href="Anonymous_function" title="Anonymous function">Anonymous function</a> (<a href="Partial_application" title="Partial application">Partial application</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Higher-order_programming" title="Higher-order programming">Higher-order</a></li>

<li><a href="Purely_functional_programming" title="Purely functional programming">Purely functional</a></li>

<li><a href="Total_functional_programming" title="Total functional programming">Total</a></li>

<li><a href="Strict_programming_language" title="Strict programming language">Strict</a></li>

<li><a href="Generalized_algebraic_data_type" title="Generalized algebraic data type">GADTs</a></li>

<li><a href="Dependent_type" title="Dependent type">Dependent types</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_logic_programming" title="Functional logic programming">Functional logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Tacit_programming" title="Tacit programming">Point-free style</a></li>

<li><a href="Expression-oriented_programming_language" title="Expression-oriented programming language">Expression-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Applicative_programming_language" title="Applicative programming language">Applicative</a>, <a href="Concatenative_programming_language" title="Concatenative programming language">Concatenative</a></li>

<li><a href="Function-level_programming" title="Function-level programming">Function-level</a>, <a href="Value-level_programming" title="Value-level programming">Value-level</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Dataflow_programming" title="Dataflow programming">Dataflow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Flow-based_programming" title="Flow-based programming">Flow-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Reactive_programming" title="Reactive programming">Reactive</a> (<a href="Functional_reactive_programming" title="Functional reactive programming">Functional reactive</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Signal_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal programming">Signals</a></li>

<li><a href="Stream_processing" title="Stream processing">Streams</a></li>

<li><a href="Synchronous_programming_language" title="Synchronous programming language">Synchronous</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">Logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abductive_logic_programming" title="Abductive logic programming">Abductive logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Answer_set_programming" title="Answer set programming">Answer set</a></li>

<li><a href="Constraint_programming" title="Constraint programming">Constraint</a> (<a href="Constraint_logic_programming" title="Constraint logic programming">Constraint logic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Inductive_logic_programming" title="Inductive logic programming">Inductive logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Nondeterministic_programming" title="Nondeterministic programming">Nondeterministic</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_language" title="Ontology language">Ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Probabilistic_logic_programming" title="Probabilistic logic programming">Probabilistic logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Query_language" title="Query language">Query</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">DSL</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Algebraic_modeling_language" title="Algebraic modeling language">Algebraic modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Array_programming" title="Array programming">Array</a></li>

<li><a href="Automata-based_programming" title="Automata-based programming">Automata-based</a> (<a href="Action_language" title="Action language">Action</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Command_language" title="Command language">Command</a> (<a href="Spacecraft_command_language" title="Spacecraft command language">Spacecraft</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Differentiable_programming" title="Differentiable programming">Differentiable</a></li>

<li><a href="Grammar-oriented_programming" title="Grammar-oriented programming">Grammar-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Interface_description_language" title="Interface description language">Interface description</a></li>

<li><a href="Language-oriented_programming" title="Language-oriented programming">Language-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="List_comprehension" title="List comprehension">List comprehension</a></li>

<li><a href="Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural-language_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural-language programming">Natural language</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Page_description_language" title="Page description language">Page description</a></li>

<li><a href="Pipeline_(software)" title="Pipeline (software)">Pipes</a> and <a href="Filter_(software)" title="Filter (software)">filters</a></li>

<li><a href="Probabilistic_programming" title="Probabilistic programming">Probabilistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_programming" title="Quantum programming">Quantum</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_programming_language" title="Scientific programming language">Scientific</a></li>

<li><a href="Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">Scripting</a></li>

<li><a href="Set_theoretic_programming" title="Set theoretic programming">Set-theoretic</a></li>

<li><a href="Simulation_language" title="Simulation language">Simulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Stack-oriented_programming" title="Stack-oriented programming">Stack-based</a></li>

<li><a href="System_programming_language" title="System programming language">System</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_programming_language" title="Tactile programming language">Tactile</a></li>

<li><a href="Template_processor" title="Template processor">Templating</a></li>

<li><a href="Transformation_language" title="Transformation language">Transformation</a> (<a href="Graph_rewriting" title="Graph rewriting">Graph rewriting</a>, <a href="Production_system_(computer_science)" title="Production system (computer science)">Production</a>, <a href="Pattern_matching" title="Pattern matching">Pattern</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Visual_programming_language" title="Visual programming language">Visual</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent</a>,<br><a href="Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">distributed</a>,<br><a href="Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">parallel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Actor_model" title="Actor model">Actor-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatic_mutual_exclusion" title="Automatic mutual exclusion">Automatic mutual exclusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Choreographic_programming" title="Choreographic programming">Choreographic programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Concurrent_logic_programming" title="Concurrent logic programming">Concurrent logic</a> (<a href="Concurrent_constraint_logic_programming" title="Concurrent constraint logic programming">Concurrent constraint logic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Concurrent_object-oriented_programming" title="Concurrent object-oriented programming">Concurrent OO</a></li>

<li><a href="Macroprogramming" title="Macroprogramming">Macroprogramming</a></li>

<li><a href="Multitier_programming" title="Multitier programming">Multitier programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Organic_computing" title="Organic computing">Organic computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_programming_model" title="Parallel programming model">Parallel programming models</a></li>

<li><a href="Partitioned_global_address_space" title="Partitioned global address space">Partitioned global address space</a></li>

<li><a href="Process-oriented_programming" title="Process-oriented programming">Process-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Relativistic_programming" title="Relativistic programming">Relativistic programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Service-oriented_programming" title="Service-oriented programming">Service-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Structured_concurrency" title="Structured concurrency">Structured concurrency</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">Metaprogramming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Attribute-oriented_programming" title="Attribute-oriented programming">Attribute-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatic_programming" title="Automatic programming">Automatic</a> (<a href="Inductive_programming" title="Inductive programming">Inductive</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_programming_language" title="Dynamic programming language">Dynamic</a></li>

<li><a href="Extensible_programming" title="Extensible programming">Extensible</a></li>

<li><a href="Generic_programming" title="Generic programming">Generic</a></li>

<li><a href="Homoiconicity" title="Homoiconicity">Homoiconicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Interactive_programming" title="Interactive programming">Interactive</a></li>

<li><a href="Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">Macro</a> (<a href="Hygienic_macro" title="Hygienic macro">Hygienic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Metalinguistic_abstraction" title="Metalinguistic abstraction">Metalinguistic abstraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-stage_programming" title="Multi-stage programming">Multi-stage</a></li>

<li><a href="Program_synthesis" title="Program synthesis">Program synthesis</a> (<a href="Bayesian_program_synthesis" title="Bayesian program synthesis">Bayesian</a>, <a href="Inferential_programming" title="Inferential programming">Inferential</a>, <a href="Programming_by_demonstration" title="Programming by demonstration">by demonstration</a>, <a href="Programming_by_example" title="Programming by example">by example</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Reflective_programming" title="Reflective programming">Reflective</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-modifying_code" title="Self-modifying code">Self-modifying code</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbolic_programming" title="Symbolic programming">Symbolic</a></li>

<li><a href="Template_metaprogramming" title="Template metaprogramming">Template</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Separation_of_concerns" title="Separation of concerns">Separation<br>of concerns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aspect-oriented_programming" title="Aspect-oriented programming">Aspects</a></li>

<li><a href="Component-based_software_engineering" title="Component-based software engineering">Components</a></li>

<li><a href="Data-driven_programming" title="Data-driven programming">Data-driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Data-oriented_design" title="Data-oriented design">Data-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Event-driven_programming" title="Event-driven programming">Event-driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Feature-oriented_programming" title="Feature-oriented programming">Features</a></li>

<li><a href="Literate_programming" title="Literate programming">Literate</a></li>

<li><a href="Role-oriented_programming" title="Role-oriented programming">Roles</a></li>

<li><a href="Subject-oriented_programming" title="Subject-oriented programming">Subjects</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_programming_languages107" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types_of_programming_languages107" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Types of programming languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Level</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Machine_code" title="Machine code">Machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly</a></li>

<li><a href="Compiled_language" title="Compiled language">Compiled</a></li>

<li><a href="Interpreted_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreted language">Interpreted</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Low-level_programming_language" title="Low-level programming language">Low-level</a></li>

<li><a href="High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">High-level</a></li>

<li><a href="Very_high-level_programming_language" title="Very high-level programming language">Very high-level</a></li>

<li><a href="Esoteric_programming_language" title="Esoteric programming language">Esoteric</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Programming_language_generations" title="Programming language generations">Generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="First-generation_programming_language" title="First-generation programming language">First</a></li>

<li><a href="Second-generation_programming_language" title="Second-generation programming language">Second</a></li>

<li><a href="Third-generation_programming_language" title="Third-generation programming language">Third</a></li>

<li><a href="Fourth-generation_programming_language" title="Fourth-generation programming language">Fourth</a></li>

<li><a href="Fifth-generation_programming_language" title="Fifth-generation programming language">Fifth</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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